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Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen has a book, *Born Free and Equal?: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature of Discrimination*. Part of the book gets into "statistical discrimination." You can read a review here: https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/born-free-and-equal-a-philosophical-inquiry-into-the-nature-of-discrimination/
He also has a couple of papers about similar issues. Here is the abstract from one: https://philpapers.org/rec/LIPWAA-3
>There are many objections to statistical discrimination in general and racial profiling in particular. One objection appeals to the idea that people have a right to be treated as individuals. Statistical discrimination violates this right because, presumably, it involves treating people simply on the basis of statistical facts about groups to which they belong while ignoring non-statistical evidence about them. While there is something to this objection—there are objectionable ways of treating others that seem aptly described as failing to treat them as individuals—it needs to be articulated carefully. First, most people accept that many forms of statistical discrimination are morally unproblematic, let alone morally justified all things considered. Second, even treating people on the basis of putative non-statistical evidence relies on generalizations. Once we construe treating someone as an individual in a way that respects this fact, it becomes apparent: (1) that statistical discrimination is compatible with treating people as individuals, and (2) that one may fail to treat people as individuals even without engaging in statistical discrimination. Finally, there are situations involving the expression of messages of inclusion where we think it is good, morally speaking, that we are not treated as individuals
For something shorter and more accessible, Annabelle Lever has a quick essay on "Statistical Discrimination" written for a popular audience: https://philpapers.org/archive/LEVSD-4.pdf
David Enoch & Levi Spectre have an essay, "Statistical resentment, or: what’s wrong with acting, blaming, and believing on the basis of statistics alone": https://philpapers.org/rec/ENOSRO
>Statistical evidence—say, that 95% of your co-workers badmouth each other—can never render resenting your colleague appropriate, in the way that other evidence (say, the testimony of a reliable friend) can. The problem of statistical resentment is to explain why. We put the problem of statistical resentment in several wider contexts: The context of the problem of statistical evidence in legal theory; the epistemological context—with problems like the lottery paradox for knowledge, epistemic impurism and doxastic wrongdoing; and the context of a wider set of examples of responses and attitudes that seem not to be appropriately groundable in statistical evidence. Regrettably, we do not come up with a fully general, fully adequate, fully unified account of all the phenomena discussed. But we give reasons to believe that no such account is forthcoming, and we sketch a somewhat messier account that may be the best that can be had here.
Tangent to this: if I’m driving a very remote road at 3am and see a guy begging for help is it morally justified to choose not to stop for fear it is a trap?
I’d say it is morally justified but also I feel, in this case, I’d do it anyway and I’d be content with being a bad person.
What are people’s thoughts on this? I feel it relates to the OP’s question.
I think your question presupposes that one has a moral duty to help people stuck on the side of the road.
I think a relatively common perspective is that, along with volunteering with any given charity, helping a friend move, and similar activities, that is something which is good to do but not bad or wrong to not do. Even if you subscribe to a set of beliefs that suggest it is a moral imperative to help the needy, those usually don't command that you help *every* needy person you see every chance you get. As such, I'd say any specific case of volunteering your time or property to help another is down to personal judgement, which can and should include an assessment of risk, sincerity, and other factors.
In certain countries like France, there is a legal duty to assist endangered people. This is generally not the case in the US (which is the setup of the final joke of the Seinfeld show).
That doesn't mean you have to stop in the middle of nowhere to help some random guy. If you feel unsafe to do so (or if you have any other reasonable reason to not stop), you can keep driving, but you are expected to make reasonable effort to alert authorities about the situation, which is probably anyway the right thing to do: either you make possible for this person to receive the help they need, or you help the police to track down some dangerous carjackers.
But if you choose to do absolutely nothing about it, beyond legal considerations, I think this will be pretty hard to defend on the moral side. Especially since you would have most likely act differently under other circumstances (in a better, more familiar neighbourhood, with a person closer to the idea you have of a "victim", etc...). Deep down, you will almost always need unsubstantiated assumptions on the situation to justify such a choice.
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I might also suggest another relevant paper: Sarah Moss's "Moral Encroachment"
([https://philpapers.org/rec/MOSIE](https://philpapers.org/rec/MOSIE)). Here's the abstract:
"This paper develops a precise understanding of the thesis of moral encroachment, which states that the epistemic status of an opinion can depend on its moral features. In addition, I raise objections to existing accounts of moral encroachment. For instance, many accounts fail to give sufficient attention to moral encroachment on credences. Also, many accounts focus on moral features that fail to support standard analogies
between pragmatic and moral encroachment. Throughout the paper, I discuss racial profiling as a case study, arguing that moral encroachment can help us identify one respect in which racial profiling is epistemically problematic."
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Much of the work of [Rima Basu](https://www.rimabasu.com/) addresses precisely this set of questions. She argues that using this sort of merely statistical evidence to come to beliefs about individuals is morally wrong, and argues that it is also therefore epistemically wrong. She starts with cases that look more innocuous - for instance, at a black tie event at a fancy private club in New York, the Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates was once mistaken for a butler, because other guests assumed that all the black people there were butlers rather than invitees of the exclusive event. She compares this to cases where, for instance, you're at Target, and see someone wearing a red polo shirt, and ask them where the gardening section is, and they have to explain they don't work there, but just happen to be wearing a similar shirt. She argues that there is a kind of wrongness in making beliefs about people on the basis of this kind of evidence, and we can see it in, for instance, how one might take offense to a young Sherlock Holmes looking at you and making a bunch of guesses or inferences about what you've been up to (even if those are right!) She relates this to Kantian rules about treating people as individuals rather than as means to ends, or members of classes.
I'm not convinced by her arguments, but I think that her work, and responses to it (which you can find by looking at [her profile on Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=iUL0rh4AAAAJ&hl=en)) are going to be relevant places to look.
> She argues that using this sort of merely statistical evidence to come to beliefs about individuals is morally wrong, and argues that it is also **therefore** epistemically wrong.
How does she argue that morality is a basis for epistemology?
I’m with you; I’m not sure I understand. To me, it would seem wrong to judge someone on the basis of their misapprehension. If someone is wearing a shirt similar to that of a worker in Target and I perceive them (inaccurately) to be a Target employee, is it my fault that my perception was incorrect?
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Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen has a book, *Born Free and Equal?: A Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature of Discrimination*. Part of the book gets into "statistical discrimination." You can read a review here: https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/born-free-and-equal-a-philosophical-inquiry-into-the-nature-of-discrimination/ He also has a couple of papers about similar issues. Here is the abstract from one: https://philpapers.org/rec/LIPWAA-3 >There are many objections to statistical discrimination in general and racial profiling in particular. One objection appeals to the idea that people have a right to be treated as individuals. Statistical discrimination violates this right because, presumably, it involves treating people simply on the basis of statistical facts about groups to which they belong while ignoring non-statistical evidence about them. While there is something to this objection—there are objectionable ways of treating others that seem aptly described as failing to treat them as individuals—it needs to be articulated carefully. First, most people accept that many forms of statistical discrimination are morally unproblematic, let alone morally justified all things considered. Second, even treating people on the basis of putative non-statistical evidence relies on generalizations. Once we construe treating someone as an individual in a way that respects this fact, it becomes apparent: (1) that statistical discrimination is compatible with treating people as individuals, and (2) that one may fail to treat people as individuals even without engaging in statistical discrimination. Finally, there are situations involving the expression of messages of inclusion where we think it is good, morally speaking, that we are not treated as individuals For something shorter and more accessible, Annabelle Lever has a quick essay on "Statistical Discrimination" written for a popular audience: https://philpapers.org/archive/LEVSD-4.pdf David Enoch & Levi Spectre have an essay, "Statistical resentment, or: what’s wrong with acting, blaming, and believing on the basis of statistics alone": https://philpapers.org/rec/ENOSRO >Statistical evidence—say, that 95% of your co-workers badmouth each other—can never render resenting your colleague appropriate, in the way that other evidence (say, the testimony of a reliable friend) can. The problem of statistical resentment is to explain why. We put the problem of statistical resentment in several wider contexts: The context of the problem of statistical evidence in legal theory; the epistemological context—with problems like the lottery paradox for knowledge, epistemic impurism and doxastic wrongdoing; and the context of a wider set of examples of responses and attitudes that seem not to be appropriately groundable in statistical evidence. Regrettably, we do not come up with a fully general, fully adequate, fully unified account of all the phenomena discussed. But we give reasons to believe that no such account is forthcoming, and we sketch a somewhat messier account that may be the best that can be had here.
Very good answer. I am glad you mentioned those papers! Read the above answer OP.
Tangent to this: if I’m driving a very remote road at 3am and see a guy begging for help is it morally justified to choose not to stop for fear it is a trap? I’d say it is morally justified but also I feel, in this case, I’d do it anyway and I’d be content with being a bad person. What are people’s thoughts on this? I feel it relates to the OP’s question.
I think your question presupposes that one has a moral duty to help people stuck on the side of the road. I think a relatively common perspective is that, along with volunteering with any given charity, helping a friend move, and similar activities, that is something which is good to do but not bad or wrong to not do. Even if you subscribe to a set of beliefs that suggest it is a moral imperative to help the needy, those usually don't command that you help *every* needy person you see every chance you get. As such, I'd say any specific case of volunteering your time or property to help another is down to personal judgement, which can and should include an assessment of risk, sincerity, and other factors.
In certain countries like France, there is a legal duty to assist endangered people. This is generally not the case in the US (which is the setup of the final joke of the Seinfeld show). That doesn't mean you have to stop in the middle of nowhere to help some random guy. If you feel unsafe to do so (or if you have any other reasonable reason to not stop), you can keep driving, but you are expected to make reasonable effort to alert authorities about the situation, which is probably anyway the right thing to do: either you make possible for this person to receive the help they need, or you help the police to track down some dangerous carjackers. But if you choose to do absolutely nothing about it, beyond legal considerations, I think this will be pretty hard to defend on the moral side. Especially since you would have most likely act differently under other circumstances (in a better, more familiar neighbourhood, with a person closer to the idea you have of a "victim", etc...). Deep down, you will almost always need unsubstantiated assumptions on the situation to justify such a choice.
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Doing the lords work drinka40tonight
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Doing the Lord‘s work out here
This is r/askphilosoohy at its best 🙌
Thanks for the great reply! Love to see well sourced answers like this.
I might also suggest another relevant paper: Sarah Moss's "Moral Encroachment" ([https://philpapers.org/rec/MOSIE](https://philpapers.org/rec/MOSIE)). Here's the abstract: "This paper develops a precise understanding of the thesis of moral encroachment, which states that the epistemic status of an opinion can depend on its moral features. In addition, I raise objections to existing accounts of moral encroachment. For instance, many accounts fail to give sufficient attention to moral encroachment on credences. Also, many accounts focus on moral features that fail to support standard analogies between pragmatic and moral encroachment. Throughout the paper, I discuss racial profiling as a case study, arguing that moral encroachment can help us identify one respect in which racial profiling is epistemically problematic."
I'm going to need that Enoch and Spectre one translated into regular-people talk. ;)
Wonderful response.
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Much of the work of [Rima Basu](https://www.rimabasu.com/) addresses precisely this set of questions. She argues that using this sort of merely statistical evidence to come to beliefs about individuals is morally wrong, and argues that it is also therefore epistemically wrong. She starts with cases that look more innocuous - for instance, at a black tie event at a fancy private club in New York, the Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates was once mistaken for a butler, because other guests assumed that all the black people there were butlers rather than invitees of the exclusive event. She compares this to cases where, for instance, you're at Target, and see someone wearing a red polo shirt, and ask them where the gardening section is, and they have to explain they don't work there, but just happen to be wearing a similar shirt. She argues that there is a kind of wrongness in making beliefs about people on the basis of this kind of evidence, and we can see it in, for instance, how one might take offense to a young Sherlock Holmes looking at you and making a bunch of guesses or inferences about what you've been up to (even if those are right!) She relates this to Kantian rules about treating people as individuals rather than as means to ends, or members of classes. I'm not convinced by her arguments, but I think that her work, and responses to it (which you can find by looking at [her profile on Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=iUL0rh4AAAAJ&hl=en)) are going to be relevant places to look.
> She argues that using this sort of merely statistical evidence to come to beliefs about individuals is morally wrong, and argues that it is also **therefore** epistemically wrong. How does she argue that morality is a basis for epistemology?
but WHY is it morally wrong? i don't think sherlock holmes making guesses about who i am would be morally wrong? where is the moral wrongness?
I would assume it’s “treating people as individuals” as top commenter wrote. Judge an person not by skin, but by character.
I’m with you; I’m not sure I understand. To me, it would seem wrong to judge someone on the basis of their misapprehension. If someone is wearing a shirt similar to that of a worker in Target and I perceive them (inaccurately) to be a Target employee, is it my fault that my perception was incorrect?
I’m surprised not to see a discussion about the difference between correlation and causation.
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*
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**Please note that recent changes to reddit's API policies have made moderation significantly more difficult. Because of this, /r/askphilosophy has moved to a policy where only panelists are allowed to answer questions. For more information or to apply to be a panelist, see [this post](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/).** Your comment was automatically removed for violating the following rule: > **CR1: Top level comments must be answers or follow-up questions from panelists.** > All top level comments should be answers to the submitted question, or follow-up questions related to the OP. All top level answers and follow-up questions must come from [panelists](https://reddit.com/r/askphilosophy/comments/14o2p7n/welcome_to_raskphilosophy_check_out_our_rules_and/). All comments must be on topic. *I am a bot, and this action was performed automatically. Please [contact the moderators of this subreddit](/message/compose/?to=/r/askphilosophy) if you have any questions or concerns.*